Eyewitness Memory and the Misinformation Effect Essay

Eyewitness Memory and the Misinformation Effect - Essay Example In comparison of both the events, the mugging event brought more correct responses than the shoplifting one. This is because the non-critical events which were being questioned later on were more diverse, well-spread and frequent in the shoplifting one; and hence the greater the probability for error. Whereas in the mugging event, there were less distractions within the same genre and sequence of the happenings for the viewer. The difference in performance was based on the settings and stimuli available. It is not significant as to how different the scores of people are in the two events, but actually the fact that there is a significant variation from the correct score because of misinformation and lapses in short-term memory. Whenever there would be previous information about a previously known object, then the same type of results would surface. Only in a totally new object would the circumstances actually turn out as different. This is because a totally new object would be viewed with full focus, and because there was no previous information to dilute the new concept. The essence lies not in distractions, but in wastage of learned stimuli as part of the memorizing process. For the same reason, learning is also referred to as a relatively permanent change in behaviour. The likelihood of reporting misinformation therefore shall always be there, as the human mind perceives due to varying abilities of attention and cognition - and this difference shall always prevail. The test group presented a lesser amount of 'wastage' in information, but nonetheless, it was still there. The reason is, that the greater the number of stimuli, the more the stress will be on the sensory processes; therefore, memorizing an event 'as it is' would become next to impossible. The controls though had lesser distractions, nonetheless, the fact that they did make mistakes due to their human limitations, makes this concept even more lucid. Also, there is the probability of the zone of 'transference' possibly originating in the testimony of the witness. This basically refers to the relationship the interviewer can have with the interviewee. This may be positive or negative. This can influence the testimony of the witness to sway in either direction, depending on the mood and relationship parameter he intends to adopts with the interviewer. Discussion The misinformation effect can be explained as a memory bias that happens when misinformation affects people's reports of their own memory. This implies, that a person who is experiencing the misinformation effect, is likely to 'pollute' and/or 'dilute' the actual event due to the information already present in the human beings' memory. Distinguishing and differentiating the memory slots, especially when the stimulus is being at a very high speed, then becomes a very difficult task. Loftus and colleagues elaborate this concept, by elucidating that there are two kinds of information which go into a person's memory of an intricate event. The first is the information obtained from perceiving the occurrence, and the second is the additional information supplied to us after the event has taken place. As time passes by, these events get interlinked and entwined with each other, thereby making it virtually impossible to separate the actual event from the previous memory of the individual. What is left in the end is one collective

Rocking Horse Winner Essay Example for Free

Rocking Horse Winner Essay Lawrence son of a coal miner and a school teacher, was born and grew up in Nottinghamshire, England. Lawrence was rejected for the military service in World War 1 because of lung trouble. This story took place just years after World War 1. It took place near London; London’s Richmond Park. There are a couple of characters in this story. They are Paul, Hester, Paul’s father, Bassett, Oscar Creswell, Miss Wilmot, Paul’s two younger sisters and Chief Artist. In the story â€Å"The Rocking Horse Winner† Lawrence uses the setting, the point of view and tragic irony to illustrate the theme that Paul was on quest to gain wealth, but lost his life. Lawrence chose London because of the different things going on in the city such, as the major races he mentioned that took place in England. â€Å"The child had never been to a horse race meeting before, and his eyes were blue fire. †(Lawrence p. 105). The horses that raced were Daffodil who came in first, Lancelot who came in second and Mirza who came in third. Lawrence wrote this story in omniscient third person point of view. This young women artist earned several thousand pounds a year, but Paul’s mother only made several hundreds, and she was again dissatisfied. † (Lawrence p. 261). Paul’s mother wanted to make more money, so she wanted to be the first in something but did not succeed. The tragic irony was when Paul picks the winning horse in the Derby but he loses his life. â€Å"But, poor devil, poor devil, he’s best gone out of a life where he rides his rocking horse to find a winner. † (Lawrence p. 266). The money he had combined was about eighty thousand pounds which is the equivalent of a million dollars today and that became his misfortune. In the story â€Å"The Rocking Horse Winner† Lawrence uses the setting, the point of view and tragic irony to tell the story. The theme of the story is a quest to find a winner. â€Å"But, poor devil, poor devil, he’s best gone out of a life where he rides hid rocking horse to find a winner. † (Lawrence p. 266). Before Paul died he is on a quest to find a great prize, luck that will let him win money to bet on horses and win to help his mom. Paul dies while he riding his horse like a knight on a quest to find a winner.

Mom :: essays research papers

When I was little, I referred to them as Mommy Susie and Mommy Patti. Mommy Susie was the one who gave birth to me, the one who died in a car accident when I was eleven months old. Mommy Patti was the one who married my dad when I was two and a half, who adopted me as her child, and has taken care of me ever since. I have vivid memories of talking to my adoptive mother about my biological mother, a subject matter which now seems oddly inappropriate. I think that, when I was younger, I did not entirely grasp the idea of death. I had no concept of the delicate familial web that was woven when one woman was taken away and another stepped in to fill her shoes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I have no recollection of ever talking to my dad and brother about my mother. My dad plays the role of the strong male figure in the family, void of emotion and distress. He gives me no hint as to what my mother was like, perhaps because of his inclination to leave the past in the past. As for my brother, I can only imagine the impact that her death had on him. He was only four years old when he witnessed the whole gruesome ordeal, and I often feel that it is not my place to inquire about her, stirring up feelings he has deliberately suppressed for so many years.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although it can be argued that I have two mothers with twice the love and twice the caring, I sometimes feel that I have no mother at all. I get jealous easily when I see the bond that many people share with their mother. To no fault of anyone, my relationship with my adoptive mother seems lacking in that area. They say that the love a mother feels for her child the first time she sees it is incomparable. I often feel as if I have been cheated out of such affection, as if part of me is missing. The bond that I had with my mother was broken before I even had the chance to experience it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Perhaps the most difficult part of my situation is discerning right from wrong. Is it wrong for me to call my biological mother my â€Å"real mother†? Does that take away credibility from the woman who has loved me and taken care of me for fifteen years?

The Great Depression in America Essay -- essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Great Depression was a time of total despair. Years of economic downturn not only affected the United States but may European countries as well. Americans endured lost of fortunes, homes, jobs and personal tragedies. Very few alive today remember what it was like, and to the rest of us, it is just a piece of history that we can only imagine. The Great Depression reeked havoc on the stock market, banking, industries, and agriculture that led to massive unemployment, breadlines and fear that lasted over a decade.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the stock market collapse, the New York banks became frightened and called in their loans to Germany and Austria. However, without the American money, Germans had to stop paying reparations to France and Britain. This was a chain reaction and they could not repay their war loans to America, therefore, the depression had spread to Europe. The U.S. Government tried to protect domestic industries form foreign competition by imposing the Hanley-Smoot Tariff of 1930. In retaliation governments worldwide sought economic recovery by adopting restrictive autarkic policies and by experimenting with new plans for their internal economics. As a result, global industrial production declined by thirty-six percent between 1929 and 1932. Worldwide trade dropped by an all time high of sixty-two percent. (Annals) The question of the day was, How did this happen?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mass speculation went on throughout the late 1920’s. In 1939 alone, record volumes of one-billion-one hundred twenty-four million-eight hundred thousand-four hundred and ten (1,124,800,410) shares were traded on the New York Stock Exchange. (Drewry) From early 1928 to September 1929 the Dow Jones Industrial Average rose from one hundred ninety one to three hundred eighty one. This sort of profit was irresistible to investors. Company earnings became of little interest; as long as stock prices continued to rise large profits could be made. Through the practice of buying stocks on margin , one could buy stocks without the money to purchase them. Investors went wild for this idea drove the market to unheard of high levels. By mid 1929 the total outstanding brokers’ loan was over seven billion dollars and eight and a half billion dollars over the next three months. Interest rates for broker loans were going for... ...d be a little more on the cautious side and take a good look at our own economy. We should take into account that it could happen again. The Great Depression was not the only depression or the longest, that title being held by the Long Depression of the late nineteenth century, nor was it the sharpest in contraction. The one after the first World War being a deeper drop, it represented the greatest fall from the general trend-line of growth. Are the signs there that we are headed for another downturn? Are we all a little to at ease with our economy? Maybe we should take a closer look. Bibliography Works Cited Boardman, F.W. The Thirties: America and the Great Depression. N.Y. Henry Z. Walcki Inc. 1967. Drewry, Robert and A.J. O’Connor. The Indigenous Role in Business Enterprise. New Guinea: New Guinea Reasearch Unit 1970 Schraff, Anne E. The Great Depression and The New Deal. NY Franklin Watts 1990 The Annals of America Vol.15. 1929-1939 The Great Depression. William Benton & Encyclopedia Britannica 1968 The Writers and Photographers of the Associated Press - 20th Century America – The Great Depression 1929-1939. Grolier Educational Corp. 1995.

Differences Between the Genders in Leadership Ability or Approach? Essay

To start, when people compare various successful leaders such as Donald Trump, John Rockefeller, or Henry Ford, they always use words to describe their personalities such as being tough, diligent, competitive and ambitious. A person’s personality is a set of unseen characteristics and processes that underlie a relatively stable pattern of behavior in response to ideas, objects or people in the environment. (Daft, 2011) These personality traits define the leader and we all know people differ in many ways leading to various styles of leadership. Differences in personality, attitudes, values and beliefs will influence how people interpret an assignment or a task. Leadership effectiveness is broadly based on the leaders’ personalities and attitudes while also how effectively they interpret differences amongst employees. All of these factors affect the leader-follower interaction but will genders in leadership affect the overall leadership ability or approach? I believe that there are differences in genders in leadership abilities and approaches. If leadership is based on personalities and attitudes, I strongly believe that there are differences in leadership abilities and approaches when considering male and female roles. When considering the traits of males compared to females as leaders, men traditionally are more aggressive and assertive than women. Males tend to be subjective to competing, while in general women prefer a far less competitive environment than men. Those traits can essentially lead to various different perspectives on leadership approaches in respect to gender. Male leaders tend to be more individualistic and prefer working in vertical hierarchies relying on formal authorities and positions in their dealings with subordinates. Female leaders tend to be more collaborative, and are more concerned for relationship building, inclusiveness, participation, and caring. (Daft, 2011) So generally the differences in male traits compared to female traits will cause different approaches towards leadership styles. Gender will also affect abilities based on assumptions about the male and female traits. Research comparing leadership styles of women and men have been reviewed and there was evidence found for both presence and the absence of differences between the sexes. Stereotypical expectations that women lead in an interpersonal oriented style and men lead in a task-oriented style, was found to be false. They found results that female and male leaders do not have differences in these two styles of organizational studies. However in the research that assessed the leadership styles was consistent with the stereotypic expectations about different aspects of leadership styles. In the tendency to lead democratically or autocratically women tended to adopt a more democratic or participative approach and a less autocratic or directive approach than did men. (Eagly & Johnson, 1990) These findings can represent and can be interpreted in terms of a social role theory of sex differences. These stereotypes reveal that men are relatively dominant and controlling. There is a masculine mode of management characterized by qualities such as competitiveness, hierarchical authority, high control for the leader, and unemotional and analytic problem solving. (Loden, 1985) He also argued that women prefer and tend to behave in terms of an alternative feminine leadership model. This model is characterized by cooperativeness, collaboration of managers and subordinates, lower control for the leader, and problem solving based on intuition and empathy as well as rationality. He based his findings around the idea that women and men, including those who are managers in organizations, behave stereotypically to some extent. I would have to agree with this belief because men and women clearly act differently and the way they act will mirror the way they lead. There have been large numbers of laboratory and field studies performed by social psychologists based around female and male behav iors. Quantitative reviews of this research have established the presence rather than the absence of overall sex differences. (Hall, 1984) They also concluded that these differences, although not that large, tend to be compatible to most other findings. There have also been findings that the level of power will directly affect the type of leadership one will show. There are reasonable assumptions that suggest that male and female leaders who occupy the same organizational role should differ very little. They assume that managers of both sexes are more concerned with managing effectively rather than about representing sex-differentiated features of social gender roles. Kanter argued that there are apparent sex differences when there is a product of the differing structural positions of the sexes within the organization. (Eagly & Johnson, 1990) Because women are more often in positions of little power or opportunity, they will behave in ways that reflect their lack of power. Eagly and Johnson concluded that a mete-analysis could provide more insight on leadership styles of males and females. The overall trends showed that women were more concerned with maintenance of interpersonal relationships and task accomplishment. The main difference found was that women tended to adopt a more autocratic or participative style while men the opposite. They tried to make distinctions about the differences in that first, women who have managed to succeed as leaders might have more highly developed interpersonal skills. Another explanation is that women are not accepted as readily as men as leaders and, as a result, have to allow input into their decision-making. Eagly and Johnson’s results are corroborated by other research. Statham also found evidence of two sex-differentiated management styles. He reported that women used a more task-engrossed and person-invested style, while men use a more image-engrossed and autonomy-invested style. (Moran, 1992) In a study focused on gender differences in communication introduces a possible explanation of different approaches. Tannen, the researcher, focused on how men and women had different experiences while growing up which lead to valuing different things. He concluded that men are taught to prize status, independence, and the power of community. All of these values lead men and women to behave in different ways. The field of gender differences in leadership styles is still and area with great questions with out answers. Even with various studies devoted to the topic of gender, there will always be unanswered questions. More and more researchers continue to examine issues regarding any innate differences between leadership styles of males and females. Currently, with the evidence provided, suggests that there are differences in gender leadership abilities and approaches. Although there are minimal differences, there are differences in males and females perspectives on leadership. We can recognize that there are different leaders with different leadership styles, but we cant automatically associate one style to a particular gender. Men and women alike will be faced with challenges and will need to develop the correct leadership styles to become a successful leader. References Daft, R. (2011). The leadership experience. (5e ed., pp. 99-125, 341-344). Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Eagly , Alice H. and Johnson, Blair T., â€Å"Gender and Leadership Style: A Meta-Analysis† (1990).CHIP Documents. Paper 11. http://digitalcommons.uconn.edu/chip_docs/11 Eagly, A. H., & Johndon, B. T. (1990) Gender and leadership style. Psychological Bulletin 108 (2), 233-256 Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (in press). Explaining sex differences in social behavior: A recta-analytic perspective. Personality and Social Psy-chology Bulletin. Hall, J. A. (1984). Nonverbal sex differences: Communication accuracy and expressive style. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Loden, M. (1985). Feminine leadership or how to succeed in business without being one of the boys. New York: Times Books. Mandell, B., & Pherwani, S. (2003). Relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style: A gender comparison . Springer, Journal of Business and Psychology, 17(3), 387-404.

Nestles Baby Formula and Third World Countries

Nestles Baby Formula and Third World Countries Nestle’s Baby Formula Controversy Nestle’s baby formula marketing in Third World countries has become a conventional case which illustrates social responsibility and business ethics. The company entered the market of Third World countries without changing its strategies and marketing techniques. This was one of the company’s major faults which led to the international scandal and boycott of Nestle’s products in Third World countries.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Nestle’s Baby Formula and Third World Countries specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The company was accused of promotion of its products and discouraging breastfeeding among woman in developing countries (Davidson 2009). Various reports and surveys were conducted. Health care employees reported that the use of Nestle products led to malnutrition and even deaths in many cases (Cateora 2011). Nestle’s Responsibility It is necessary to note that even though the products were boycotted, many people advocated Nestle’s products. For instance, these people claimed that malnutrition and high rate of infant deaths was caused by social and economic situation in the countries, rather than by the use of Nestle products. Nestle also argued that in many cases women misused Nestle products which led to health problems or fatal cases. Besides, Nestle also stressed that the company never discouraged breastfeeding among woman in any country. On the contrary, the company always articulated the idea that breastfeeding is the best option. Nonetheless, Nestle also admitted that some of their marketing techniques needed rethinking (Frederick 2002, p.233). For instance, such practice as distribution of free products among women or nurses was seen as inappropriate. It goes without saying that Nestle can be regarded as an example of the multinational which can be socially responsible. Thus, when the company ackno wledged that some of its practices were unethical or wrongful, it started reshaping its marketing strategies. Nestle followed the rules set by WHO and made a decision to start marketing its products only when particular laws and regulations would be enacted. Admittedly, this is an ethical and responsible position. Recommendations to Nestle However, the contemporary world brings new challenges to the fore. Thus, spread of HIV infection in Third World countries is the issue which needs drastic measures. In this respect, Nestle’s products can become one of the strategies which can reduce the rate of this infection spread. Reportedly, breastfeeding is one of the ways of HIV infection transmission.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This matter has been one of the most disputable issues during the past decades (Moland et al. 2010). Scientists try to discover new wa ys to prevent this kind of transmission (Iliff et al. 2005). Apparently, there is one easy step to be undertaken. Thus, Nestle can address world public and assure Third World countries as well as WHO and developed countries that the company will start a campaign aimed at raising awareness concerning proper use of Nestle’s baby formula. For instance, the company can start up an advertising campaign. However, the major attention should be paid to the proper use of the product rather than the product itself. It is also essential to stress the benefits of breastfeeding. Admittedly, the company should present new ways of its products marketing. Nestle should initiate new discussions concerning distribution of its products in Third World countries. It can be helpful to implement new surveys in the area. The company should also provide reports on its products safety. In this way the company can contribute to prevention of HIV transmission. It will also help to rehabilitate baby prod ucts worldwide. Reference List Cateora, PR, Gilly, MC, and Graham, JL 2011, Ch. 5. Culture, management style, and business systems, in Cateora et al. (eds), International Marketing, McGraw Hill, Berkshire, UK, pp. 146-148. Davidson, K 2009, Ethical concerns at the bottom of the pyramid: where CSR meets BOP, Journal of International Business Ethics, vol. 2 no. 1, pp. 22-32. Frederick, R 2002, A companion to business ethics, John Wiley Sons, Oxford.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Nestle’s Baby Formula and Third World Countries specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Iliff, PJ, Piwoz, EG, Tavengwa, NV, Zunguza, CD, Marinda, ET, Nathoo, KJ, Moulton, LH, Ward, BJ, the ZVITAMBO study group, Humphrey, JH 2005, ‘Early exclusive breastfeeding reduces the risk of postnatal HIV-1 transmission and increases HIV-free survival’, AIDS, vol. 19 no. 7, pp. 699-708. Moland, KM, Paoli, MM, Sellen, DW, Esterik, P, Lesh abari, SC, Blystad, A 2010, ‘Breastfeeding and HIV: experiences from a decade of prevention of postnatal HIV transmission in sub-Saharan Africa’, International Breastfeeding Journal, vol. 5, no. 10, pp. 1-7.

Johnson Johnson PR Campaign

Johnson Johnson PR Campaign Executive SummaryThe purpose of this paper is to provide a Public Relations Campaign to Johnson Johnson for moving an existing production facility overseas. This is a very sensitive topic, but the business analysis showed this would in the best interest for the corporation. This PR campaign is to be reviewed with the board of directors for approval as the budget for the campaign is $277,000.00.PR CampaignThere are public relations and political risks associated with deciding to outsource beyond our borders. In a weak domestic economy in which good, high paying and stable jobs are hard to come by, there is increasing public and political resistance to allowing foreign workers into the U.S. This resistance is reflected in a reduction in the number of U.S. visas being issued, and political resistance to outsourcing work overseas. Such resistance has been expressed in the recent passing of laws prohibiting the outsourcing of certain state funded call center operations to service provide rs overseas, notably in New Jersey.Bryan & Gov. Johnson, Sacramento, Calif. (LOC)Also, if the economy weakens it is possible that there will be political pressure to pass laws barring the procurement of technology developed overseas by any state or the federal government.Furthermore, be on the lookout for large-scale consumer backlashesagainst companies that make extensive use of offshore outsourcing arrangements to reduce costs. It is clear that many companies are concerned about potential public relations issues based on the efforts that companies undertake to avoid revealing the fact that they use offshore service providers.At Johnson and Johnson, the opposition that we are receiving is not from angry protesters and politicians but from our own employees. This area of the PR campaign will focus on this group and how to help alleviate some of their concerns.Their opposition can take many forms. Individuals...